Mezirow's

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"According to Confucius, silent reflection is not a cognitive process isolated from the rest of the human being, rather it involves the entire “body and mind” (as cited in Tu, 1979, p. 103)" "Most importantly two major tenets emerge: (1) Confucian thought of learning emphasizes meditation to control oneself and (2) there needs to be an internal integration between self and nature. The learning process that facilitates the development of this meditative and integrated self is to be continually extended through dialogue with others within many different structures of human relationships."

"Although Confucius never claimed that he had himself attained sagehood, his ultimate concern was not to become a Confucianist, but to become a genuine human being, a sage. Therefore, he prescribed “self-realization” as the ultimate goal of every learner. This goal is not only mirrored in Mezirow’s theory but also another widely popular Western educational psychology theorist Maslow's self-actualization (Maslow, 1954)."

 "Among a number of criticisms, the very first one is that this theory has included little attention to the social context that may strain the reflection process so that the social context may facilitate or inhibit the reflection process (Boxler, 2004; McWhinney, 2004). Secondly, gender and socio-economic class may play important parts in the reflection process and yet they are not frequently brought out as factors in the discussions of Mezirow’s theory of reflectivity (King, 2005). For instance, while in many cultures women may tend to be intuitive learners, men may tend to be cognitive learners (Hayes & Flannery, 2000). Therefore should we expect a greater proclivity and ability among women and perhaps less ability, understanding, value, and more resistance among men? These are questions that are not asked frequently (King, 2002, 2005). Regarding socio-economic class, Freire (1970, 1973, 2003) argues that the oppressed have lost the ability to challenge living conditions and thinking about their life. They no longer have the self-confidence to be independent thinkers. Therefore in this paradigm, critical reflection does not exist among the oppressed. What does the ability of and consequences for all socio-economic classes to be able to engage in and benefit from reflectivity? Thirdly, reflectivity may be age related (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Confucius has addressed this question in his teachings (Confucius, 500BCEc). Noncontrolled studies in transformative learning have shown no direct correlation, but what would further studies indicate (King, 2002, 2003)? Fourth, reflectivity may vary from culture to culture (Baumgartner & Merriam, 1999; King, 2005; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). People see the world differently and learn differently when they become conscious of their social situation. The reflection process may be shaped by different cultures. A recent critique by Merriam (2004) is that a high level of cognitive functioning serves as a prerequisite for critical reflection. Indeed, this analysis of the literature would indicate that without this prerequisite of cognitive functioning critical reflection may not occur. What does this mean regarding reflectivity, education, and opportunity, contextualization and impact among different cultures?"